AND ON THE CONTINENT.

45

mands an increasing interest of the worker in his labour, withthe object of improving and raising his capacity for work, andthese are only possible on the foundation of freedom. Thus thefree craftsman is evolved from the serfish industrial workers,originally in the interest of the master; and the town from thefeudal establishment of the Middle Ages (27). But more especi-ally clear, because only belonging to the last and present century,is this development in the sphere of agriculture. The necessityof more thorough cultivation compels the introduction of the freelabourer, whose work, though apparently dearer, is still cheaper,on account of its extraordinarily greater capacity (28).

In the hand-toil of the Middle Ages, trade labour had reachedfreedom early, and afforded not only an agreeable existence, butalso honour and position in society. But the foundation of thisposition was insecure ; it depended upon monopoly and law enact-ments. It vanished with the flourishing of the world’s marketand international competition.

Cheapening of the costs of production was now the innermostprinciple of trading. Hand-work was therewith succeeded byCentralised Industry, the oldest form of which was cottage in-dustry, whose full attainment first created the modern factorysystem. But the worker sank exceedingly quickly from hisformer height, under the pressure of the new world-market. Hislaw of life was again the minimum standard of living, beyondwhich he had already appeared to have raised himself for goodwith the abandonment of slavery. The time for labour, limitedby custom or law, in summer (including the stoppage fordinner) 12 hours, in winter until the commencement of darkness,was again lengthened to the bounds of possibility.

27. The same thing is to be seen, again, in Russia, where the serf was allowedto engage himself in another’s trade service, and only a payment was reserved ;in fact, he was freed with the exception of the payment.—Oprockbauern.

28. Compare, for instance, what Roscher(par. 71) says is the experience onthe Bernstorff estates. The experiences of Von Munchausen have a similartendency. This personage, along with Bernstorff, was one of the first todemand the emancipation of the serfs from the point of view of economicalprogress. Compare Munchausen: “Detailed Particulars of the Cessation ofSerfdom on the Estate Steinburg ” (Leipzig, 1801). Further instances, forRussia, are given by Roscher (par. 71, note 6). A free mower mows as muchas two or three serfs; an estate horse accomplishes as much as three to fourpeasants’ horses ; with free workers instead of serfs rye produces 8J instead of3, barley 9J instead of 4, oats 8 instead of 2 § standards. All are analogies ofthe development to be depicted here.